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/dev/fd and its contentThe directory /dev/fd and its content
File descriptors when creating child processes
Unnamed pipes
Process substitution
/dev/fd and its contentFile descriptors
The directory /dev/fd and its content
File descriptors when creating child processes
Unnamed pipes
Process substitution
Note that after a fork, you initially have two copies of the same process which differ only in the return value from the fork call (the parent gets the PID of the child, the child gets 0). Normally, a fork is followed by an exec to replace one of the copies by another executable. The open file descriptors survive that exec. Note also that before the exec, the process can do other manipulations (like closing files that the new process should not get, or opening other files).
An unnamed pipe is just a pair of file descriptors created on request by the kernel, so that everything written to the first file descriptor is passed to the second. The most common use is for the piping construct foo | bar of bash, where the standard output of foo is replaced by the write part of the pipe, and the standard input is replaces by the read part. Standard input and standard output are just the first two entries in the file table (entry 0 and 1; 2 is standard error), and therefore replacing it means just rewriting that table entry with the data corresponding to the other file descriptor (again, the actual implementation may differ). Since the process cannot access the table directly, there's a kernel function to do that.
Now we have everything together to understand how the process substitution works:
echo process. The child process (which is an exact copy of the original bash process) closes the reading end of the pipe and replaces its own standard output with the writing end of the pipe. Given that echo is a shell builtin, bash might spare itself the exec call, but it doesn't matter anyway (the shell builtin might also be disabled, in which case it execs /bin/echo).<(echo 1) by the pseudo file link in /dev/fd referring to the reading end of the unnamed pipe./dev/fd/. Since the the corresponding file descriptor is still open, it still corresponds to the reading end of the pipe. Therefore if the PHP program opens the given file for reading, what it actually does is to create a second file descriptor for the reading end of the unnamed pipe. But that's no problem, it could read from either.echo command which goes to the writing end of the same pipe. Note that after a fork, you initially have two copies of the same process which differ only in the return value from the fork call (the parent gets the PID of the child, the child gets 0). Normally, a fork is followed by an exec to replace one of the copies by another executable. The open file descriptors survive that exec. Note also that before the exec, the process can do other manipulations (like closing files that the new process should not get, or opening other files).
An unnamed pipe is just a pair of file descriptors created on request by the kernel, so that everything written to the first file descriptor is passed to the second. The most common use is for the piping construct foo | bar of bash, where the standard output of foo is replaced by the write part of the pipe, and the standard input is replaces by the read part. Standard input and standard output are just the first two entries in the file table (entry 0 and 1; 2 is standard error), and therefore replacing it means just rewriting that table entry with the data corresponding to the other file descriptor (again, the actual implementation may differ). Since the process cannot access the table directly, there's a kernel function to do that.
Now we have everything together to understand how the process substitution works:
echo process. The child process (which is an exact copy of the original bash process) closes the reading end of the pipe and replaces its own standard output with the writing end of the pipe. Given that echo is a shell builtin, bash might spare itself the exec call, but it doesn't matter anyway (the shell builtin might also be disabled, in which case it execs /bin/echo).<(echo 1) by the pseudo file link in /dev/fd referring to the reading end of the unnamed pipe./dev/fd/. Since the the corresponding file descriptor is still open, it still corresponds to the reading end of the pipe. Therefore if the PHP program opens the given file for reading, what it actually does is to create a second file descriptor for the reading end of the unnamed pipe. But that's no problem, it could read from either.echo command which goes to the writing end of the same pipe.Well, there are many aspects to it.
For each process, the kernel maintains a table of open files (well, it might be implemented differently, but since you are not able to see it anyways, you can just assume it's a simple table). That table contains information about which file it is/where it can be found, in which mode you opened it, at which position you are currently reading/writing, and whatever else is needed to actually perform I/O operations on that file. Now the process never gets to read (or even write) that table. When the process opens a file, it gets back a so-called file descriptor. Which is simply an index into the table.
/dev/fd and its contentOn Linux dev/fd is actually a symbolic link to /proc/self/fd. /proc is a pseudo file system in which the kernel maps several internal data structures to be accessed with the file API (so they just look like regular files/directories/symlinks to the programs). Especially there's information about all processes (which is what gave it the name). The symbolic link /proc/self always refers to the directory associated with currently running process (that is, the process requesting it; different processes therefore will see different values). In the process's directory, there's a subdirectory fd which for each open file contains a symbolic link whose name is just the decimal representation of file descriptor (the index into the process's file table, see previous section), and whose target is the file it corresponds to.
A child process is created by a fork. A fork makes a copy of the file descriptors, which means that the child process created has the very same list of open files as the parent process does. So unless one of the open files is closed by the child, accessing an inherited file descriptor in the child will access the very same file as accessing the original file descriptor in the parent process.